This research examines the Chinese woman from the empress to modern times. Through a careful consideration of what has been written historically about the development of women in China, a fuller understanding of the limits and possibilities of living in Chinese society is gathered. In addition, by exploring the history of the development of women in Chinese culture, it will be possible to highlight the specific methods that women use in an attempt to assert their power and authority in society.
In order to begin this investigation, it is first useful to consider the overall development of Chinese culture and history. Although many scholars have tried to explore Chinese culture and development, it is clear that the mystery surrounding this culture remains part of the understanding of modern China. According to Wei (1947), “For many centuries and until recent times, the Chinese developed their civilization in almost complete isolation from the rest of the world, except for casual acquaintances, and only when their civilization had taken almost a definite shape” (p. 1). In the context of today’s understanding of Chinese culture, it is this isolation that has made it difficult for Western scholars to understand and understand the society and culture that developed in China. Despite this, researchers have devoted considerable time and energy to seeking to better understand the culture and history of China.
Research into the origins of Chinese culture suggests that Chinese culture began somewhere around 1500 B.C. (Michael, 1986). However, it was not until 200 B.C. China is recognized as a single culture as a united country. During this time, Imperial China began to rise as the dominant cultural and political power in the Far East. As stated by Michael (1986);
After establishing the social order, the Chinese put in systems to observe the most humane form of human community. In the interaction between them and neighboring cultures, the Chinese order influenced and dominated the neighboring regions of Central, East and Southeast Asia, so that the military and political domination of China extended beyond China into its own neighboring nations for much of historical time. of Interior Asia, Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia (p. 8).
The author here observes that the empire of Imperial China was viewed by other developing nations as the one true civilization. For this reason, the Chinese could exert great influence and power over the development of neighboring countries, regions and peoples.
When examining the rule of Empress Wu, it is clear that this one woman’s ability to wield such significant influence over the empire has forced scholars to examine the culture in which women were forced to live during the development of China’s empire. . According to Knapp (1992), women were seen as problematic in the larger context of social and religious development. “Women, because they represented a threat to the stability of monastic communities and the discipline practiced in them, chastity was emphasized” (p. 2). Knapp notes that as Confucianism began to spread throughout the region attitudes toward women became more restrictive. “Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.), the preacher of the moral family, who focused on ethics, virtue, filial piety and ancestral piety, had almost no regard for women. Their existence and individual roles were reduced to procreation and adherence to the prevailing social arrangements. Therefore, not at all It is surprising if concubines played a significant role in the development of Chinese society.
Knapp notes that the patriarchal culture that has developed in China is the basis for many of the actions taken against women. As Knapp reports, “generally women were subjugated, looked upon as objects for man’s pleasure, and captured or destroyed in any way or shape. Whenever he wanted a powerful girl, he just had her kidnapped.” (p. 15). Little Women, if someone says what has happened to them. Mothers could not stop the actions against their daughters. Knapp argues that mothers in a patriarchal society only owe a duty to their children. For this reason women did not consider themselves lascivious to the lusts of men. In this context it is quite clear that women become nothing more than sexual conveniences for men.
Although the system of patriarchy and piety that developed in the Imperial age made it difficult for women to have any real power. in life or bodies, Knapp notes that the application of filial piety to the mother-in-law relationship has had a detrimental impact on human development as well. “Understandably, the mother’s affection and attention are mainly focused on the children, since filial piety demanded servitude from them. The mother-in-law’s domination of the children was so prevalent that the man was often left psychologically castrated” (p. 16). As such, the cultural system that was created in this context is one that has clearly had ramifications for humans. In this context, it is easier to understand why some men were not as “strong” or “viral” as they had expected from a higher level of social and cultural freedom. Empress Wu’s husband was known to have a weak mind. For this reason, Wu was able to successfully rule over the man and take over the government.
In addition to the fact that men were psychologically castrated because of the methods used by the mother to control her child, Knapp notes that there were a multitude of social norms that were put in place for men to ensure that they maintained strict leadership. about women, especially wives and concubines. Knapp notes that in one of the ancient texts that prepared men and women for marriage, it is written:
But if the husband does not control his wife, then the rules of behavior that manifest his authority are abandoned and broken. If the wife does not serve the husband, then the proper relationship (between men and women) and the natural order of things is neglected and destroyed. As a matter of fact, the reason for these two is the same (women are enslaved by men, and men are enslaved by women) (p. 23).
Thus, men are supposed to ensure the perpetuation of the patriarchal system of control over their women. This is the only way the nature of the Chinese society could be preserved.
Although the patriarchal system clearly had ramifications for human development, it is clear that the system had far more implications for women. Knapp further reports that because women were seen as nothing more than sexual traffic in men, they were not provided with even the most basic levels of education. “Some liberal educated families encouraged their daughters to cultivate their talent, but women mostly retired to domestic duties, imprisoned by walls and curtains” (p. 44). In addition, girls are often considered such a burden to the family that from the very beginning of the country’s infanticide development, they have been used as tools to prevent the family from being overwhelmed by supporting a female child< /a> from birth to his marriage. In addition, while men were allowed to go as they pleased, women were controlled at home: “while the men, whenever the mood moved them, left their compound cities, the women, especially the elderly, were forced to stay; a regular and close existence, both physically and symbolically” (p. 44).
The culture that developed during the Imperial era of China’s history was one that was carried out strictly within the context of a religiously established society. Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism all became integral parts of Chinese development. While each of these religions used a different framework for social development, each religious culture that developed in China saw women as a threat to society’s progress. To this extent, deep-rooted methods of social oppression against women were used as a tool to perpetuate religion and promote the overall development of China as one true civilization (Michael, 1986). In this regard, it is not surprising that women in ancient Chinese history did not play a leading role in the writings and doctrines produced. However, as history shows, there were a few notable women who emerged during the Caesarian era.
Empress Lu
Knapp (1992) notes that the first empress to come to power during the Caesarian era was Empress Lu (195-179 B.C.). Although women were considered to be both passive and powerless, when Lu’s husband, Emperor Kao Tsu, died unexpectedly, Luasked to have members. killed her husband’s family in order to remain in power. During this time, the Lu prince was able to establish his authority. However, “He tried to remove the widow with the members of her husband’s family against the principle of legitimacy and the so-called patriarchal” (p. 14). Thus, shortly after he had succeeded to the command of Lu, he was deposed and killed. However. Knapp notes that as a result of his actions toward his husband’s family, individual members of the Lu family were later killed. Knapp notes that although Lu was able to capture her husband’s attention through her stunning beauty and cunning, in the end these attributes did not protect Lu from fate. Despite her great efforts to remain in power, Empress Lu was unable to hold onto her empire.
Empress Wu
Empress Wu, who reigned in the T’ang dynasty (624-705) is the only empress who is recognized in Chinese history as a ruler during the Imperial era. According to Michael, Wu Chao, Empress Wu, entered the palace in the year 12 637 as a concubine to Emperor T’ai-tsung. When T’ai-tsung died suddenly at the age of 48, Wu was sent to have all the other concubines in the monastery. Emperor Kao-tsung visited the monastery shortly after T’ai-tsung’s deposition. During this time, Kao-tsung met Wu, fell in love with her and married her. Empress Wu proved to be a formidable woman: intelligent and beautiful. Michael goes on to note that Wu “was a minister’s daughter, skilled in literature and history, clever and charming, who soon managed affairs for the weak and indulgent emperor Kao-tsung. After the emperor’s death in 683, she reigned as empress empress.” and a few years later, in 690, he placed the formal mark of his rule by name changes of the dynasty. to Chou… (p. 111).
Although women in China during the Imperial era assumed a purely submissive role, Empress Wu was able to make a remarkable female ruler. Mackerras and Tung (1987) in their examination of the rule of Empress Wu argue that this woman was so effective that she, “only reversed the sexual roles and behaved no differently than a male in her position” (p. 65). These authors may note that the portraits of Wu taken throughout history show her as a benevolent and positive ruler, Wu was in He became known as a tough leader who took terrible steps to keep his subjects in line. Furthermore, Mackerras and Tung report that there is a large body of pornographic literature that records the sexual exploits of Empress Wu. Wu was known for having a large number of men in his service. She was also reported to be a “nymphomaniac” (p. 66).
Critically reviewing what has been written about Empress Wu, it is clear that her ability to rule the Chinese people was much different than that of a male emperor who allowed her to stay in power for several decades. While it is clear that Wu was able to assert his power through his status, it is also clear that Wu was able to assert his power through his sexuality. Michael (1986) in his examination of Empress Wu notes that Wu was able to attract Emperor Kao-tsung because of her beauty. Furthermore, as Mackerras and Tung (1987) reported, Wu used her sexuality as a tool to dominate other male leaders in the empire. Empress Wu was known for keeping a large number of male lovers. Moreover, he had acquired a reputation as a nymphomaniac. This effectively suggests that, even though women’s culture has dictated submission to and domination by men, they could still gain some power through the use of sexuality. Empress Wu’s sexuality was clearly a tool used to serve a valuable end.
Other scholars examining Empress Wu’s reign note that she could use her husband’s medical problems. According to Benn (2002), “the man suffered from a chronic illness, possibly a stroke, which left him with dizziness, paralysis and Impressa Wei
Empress Wei came to power when Zhongzong, son of Empress Wu, deposed Wu in 705. Empress Wei is noted to have had great influence over Emperor Zhongzong. Benn (2002) notes that “she [Empress Wei] gave him firm support and talked him into committing death while he was in exile between 684 and 698.” However, his father Zhongzong was considered “weak” by many. Empress Wei was able to take advantage of this by promoting her daughters in a wider area of government. “At the insistence of her husband, he established his offices with official delegates, previously granted only to the emperor’s sons – for his sister and daughters in 706. In 709 Wei demanded that Zhongzong women bequeath the right to hereditary privileges to their sons, previously only a male prerogative” (p. 6).
Under the rule of Empress Wei, the empire began to offer new rights to women. However, Wei’s daughters took advantage of the situation. As a result, a lot of political corruption broke out during this period of time. The daughters of Wei were later removed from power dedicated to the advancement of the T’ang dynasty. Wei later lost favor with the T’ang clan and was forced to commit suicide in 713 (Benn, 2002). Although Wei wanted to increase the power of women in politics, the actions of his daughters in government seem to have brought great disgrace to the Wei family. As such, the progress made towards women during this period was marred by the actions of Wei’s daughters.
Empress Dowager Tz’u-hsi
The following story tells of Empress Wei that few women can be accepted in China which Empress Wu and Empress Wei had created. For this reason, it is not at all surprising that women did not make a substantial impact on the development of history and culture until the 19th century. During this period the Empress Dowager came into power. Reviewing how the Empress Dowager came to power, Chien-Nung, Ingalls and Teng (1956) noted that Emperor Hsien-Feng died in 1861. Because his wife had borne him no children, the male of one of his concubines was chosen to take over the government. Tsai-ch’un, the son of the Empress Dowager Tz’u-hsi, was placed on the throne at the age of 5. Although the administrators of Emperor Hsien-feng won the republic in the early years of Tsai-ch’un’s reign; Hsien-feng’s widow and Empress Dowager Tz’u-hsi resented the usurpation of power that had taken place.
The Empress Dowager Tz’u-in an attempt to recover the kingdom proposed her rule to follow her son as leader. However, when Emperor Tsai-ch’un died at the age of 18, this left his Empress Dowager Tz’u-u with no means of governing the state. To fill the gap left by Emperor Tsai-ch’un, the Empress Dowager Tz’u-sos called for a replacement only 13 years old, Emperor Kuang-hsü. By keeping a puppet emperor on the throne, the Empress Dowager Tz’u-his was able to maintain control of the government;
Tz’u-hsi gave unlimited rein to his lusts, and allowed his favorite swordsmen to share in the government. Gradually, the officials inside and outside the capital were reduced to earning their favors in order to maintain their power and prestige. […] From this time to the end of the reign of the Ch’ing dynasty, the central force was driven by a woman and a few swordsmen (p. 91).
Examining the rule of the Empress Dowager Tz’u-his, another trend can be seen in the cultural development of women. The Empress Dowager Tz’u-his, like many of her predecessors, was able to seize the throne, using the Emperor’s weakness as a means of asserting her authority. The Empress Dowager Tz’u-sua only came to power because she was the only individual who had given birth to a son for the late Emperor. Although his son was the official head of state, he was too young to effectively rule the country. As a result, the Empress Dowager Tz’u-his was able to take control of the country. Although her son was the official ruler, the Empress Dowager Tz’u-sua had established formal public authority. On the death of her son at the age of 18, the Empress Dowager Tz’u installed another puppet prince in order to retain the power she had acquired. Ultimately, the Empress Dowager Tz’u-his was able to assume political power because of her ability to manipulate the male emperors who were in charge of the government.
Women in Modern China
As the history of modern China shows, the culture that developed in this context was quite restricted to women. Despite many restrictions, some women were able to make significant strides to promote social and cultural influence and women’s empowerment. With this in mind, it is useful to consider how these women achieve development in modern China.
Much like Empresses, who exercised power over their husbands through domineering personalities, women in modern China are trying to create stronger family ties that can take some power over their families and their lives. Women are now looking for women to create strong relationships with their husbands and male children, so that they can achieve maximum equality in their family relationships. While the specific rules that govern women’s actions and behavior are still an integral and important part of women’s lives, women have been able to control more within the context of their family. This has created a high level of stability for women in China. Indeed, it appears as if Chinese women are taking excuses from the rulers of the past. Women in China are beginning to learn that even though society is structured in a patriarchal way, this does not mean that some degree of control cannot be achieved within the context of the family unit.
When placed in this context, it seems reasonable to argue that women, while remaining a subordinate group in contemporary China, have been able to make significant gains to improve the status of society. Interestingly, when these promotions are examined in the context of the development made by Empresses of the past, such as Empress Wu and Empress Dowager Tz’u-his, it is clear that there are distinct attitudes in character. Women of the past and present have been able to control their lives and families by claiming that there is enough pressure to allow the dominant male to remain in place. Through this process, women can find schools that provide them with a sense of security. In addition, women can make critical decisions based on the behavior and actions of their husbands and abusive children. Therefore, since women are not formally in power, it is clear that they have great power over men and children. This power translates into the ability to take power and stability in a culture that does little to protect the needs and rights of women.
Conclusion
When all the data and information in this research are summarized, the end result is a significant picture of women in China. Despite the establishment and hegemonization of male dominance in Chinese culture, Chinese women have proven themselves to be formidable competitors for power and social influence. Although women did not have the privilege of obtaining power in a direct way that would allow their full control in any case, it is clear that women have developed methods by which they can effectively manipulate their male family members. This process allowed some women to rise to extraordinary power in China. Most of all, however, this process has enabled women in China to live with peace of mind that their needs and voices can be heard. Thus, although women did not draw power at all, they were able to make critical changes to improve their entire life environment.
Obviously, the social and cultural movements that have arisen in the context of contemporary China are quite unique. The patriarchal system that favors people’s needs and desires is what creates weak people incapable of living their modern lives. Rather than trying to dominate men and shape them into power, women have made a decision to perpetuate the system and work in the system to ensure their happiness and ensures security. When this is put into context, it is clear that the system of gender balance of power that has developed in China is remarkably unique. Women are actively elected to leave men in the dominant role. However, women have been able to change men well and allow them to believe that they are actually in control.
Even though this culture is one that is truly unique given the strong patriarchal society that was created in China, it is clear that it works for everyone involved. Therefore, it is not surprising that women have not made significant gains in the social and cultural discourse in China. Women do not actively seek to negotiate with society. Rather, they are simply looking to maintain the status quo while still ensuring that their needs are met.
References
Benn, C. (2002). Daily Life in Traditional China: Tang Dynasty. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Chien-Nung, L., Ingalls, J., & Teng, S. (1956). Political History of China, 1940-1928. Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
Knapp, B.L. (1992). Images of China: A Western View. Troy, NY: Whitston Publishing.
Mackerras, C., & Tung, C. (1987). Drama in the People’s Republic of China. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Michael, F. (1986). China Through the Ages: A History of Civilization Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Wei, F.C.M. (1947). Spirit of Chinese Culture. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Wolff, M. (1985). The Extended Revolution: Women in Contemporary China. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
